History

This is the intro to history

Big Bang to Brains - Cosmological and Evolutionary History

13.8bn ya: The Big Bang and the Birth of the Universe

The Big Bang is, we presume, the cataclysmic event that gave birth to the universe. In an instant, all the energy and matter of the universe were concentrated into an infinitely small point, and then began to expand and cool, leading to the formation of atoms of the first, lightest, atoms - primarily hydrogen and helium and maybe some lithium.

Over millions of years, gravity caused these atoms to come together in vast gas clouds that eventually ignited to create the first stars. The stars forged heavier elements in their cores. These elements, like carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen are the building blocks of life and, when these stars died, they exploded in spectacular supernovae, scattering the elements across the cosmos.

4.6bn ya: Formation of Planets and the Emergence of Life

About 4.6 billion years ago, our solar system formed from a cloud of gas and dust left over from previous generations of stars. At the center of this swirling cloud, the sun ignited, and the remaining material coalesced to form the planets, including Earth.

3.8bn ya: Emergence of Life on Earth

The mechanisms through which life emerged on Earth are still debated, but we believe that simple organic molecules formed in the primordial oceans and eventually self-assembled into the first self-replicating structures. These early life forms were simple, single-celled organisms, but they were the ancestors of all life on Earth today.

• -3.5b - Photosynthesis
• -2b - Eukaryotes
• -1.6b - Multi-Celled Life
• -1.5b - Fungi
• -800m - Plants
• -700m - Animals

540m ya: The Cambrian Explosion

For billions of years, life on Earth remained relatively simple. But then, about 540 million years ago, a burst of evolutionary innovation known as the Cambrian explosion occurred. During this period, a remarkable diversity of multicellular organisms appeared, with complex body plans and new features like eyes and skeletons.

Over the next hundreds of millions of years, life continued to evolve and diversify, driven by natural selection. Fish evolved into amphibians, amphibians into reptiles, and reptiles into birds and mammals.

• -518m - Vertebrates
• -390m - Tetrapods
• -243m - Dinosaurs
• -170m - Mammals
• -85m - Primates

65m ya: The Rise of Mammals and Primates

About 65 million years ago, a mass extinction event wiped out the dinosaurs, paving the way for the rise of mammals, which diversified rapidly, evolving into a wide range of forms, from whales to bats to primates.

Primates, which include monkeys, apes, and humans, evolved about 55 million years ago, and started as small, tree-dwelling creatures with grasping hands and feet, and forward-facing eyes that provided depth perception.

6m ya: The Emergence of Humans

The human lineage diverged from the chimpanzee lineage about 6-7 million years ago. The first hominins, the group that includes humans and our extinct ancestors, were bipedal, an adaptation that freed their hands for other tasks, such as carrying objects and using tools.

Over millions of years, hominin brains gradually increased in size and complexity. This increase in brain size was accompanied by the development of new cognitive abilities, such as language, abstract thought, and problem-solving.

• -2.3 - Homo Habilis
• -2m - Homo Erectus

300k ya: Homo Sapiens / Modern Humans

Homo sapiens appeared about 300,000 years ago. We are characterized by our large brains, complex language abilities, and capacity for symbolic thought, and are the only hominin species that has survived to the present day.

Our brains contain the most complex structures in the known universe, with about 86 billion neurons, each connected to thousands of other neurons, forming a vast network that allows us to perceive the world around us, learn and remember information, and engage in complex thought and behavior.

Several factors are believed to have contributed to the evolution of the human brain, including:

• Bipedalism - Walking on two legs freed our hands and allowed for the development of tool use, which in turn stimulated brain development.
• Diet - A shift towards a more meat-rich diet provided the extra energy needed to fuel a larger brain.
• Social interaction - Living in complex social groups required advanced cognitive abilities, such as recognizing individuals, understanding social hierarchies, and cooperating with others.
• Language - The development of language allowed for more complex communication and the transmission of knowledge across generations.

Stones to Screens - Prehistory, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern History

Once the modern human brains was in place, how did we come to construct the societies where we are today.

300k-50k ya: The Dawn of Humanity

Homo sapiens emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago and lived in small, nomadic groups, hunting and gathering for survival. They were deeply intertwined with the natural world, and their culture likely revolved around animistic beliefs, with reverence for animals, natural forces, and the cycles of life and death.

Around 1 million years ago, Homo erectus had tamed fire, but its widespread us began around this period, providing warmth, protection from predators, and allowed for cooking, which improved nutrition and facilitated social gatherings.

We also have evidence of symbolic thought, including the use of ochre for body painting and the creation of simple ornaments, suggesting the development of self-awareness, social identity, and perhaps early forms of ritualistic behavior.

• -130k-100k - Out of Africa

50k-10k ya: The Great Leap Forward

During this period, there was a significant acceleration in human cultural and technological development, including:

• Advanced toolmaking - The development of more sophisticated stone tools, such as blades and projectile points, improved hunting efficiency and resource utilization.
• Art and symbolic expression - Cave paintings, such as those found in Lascaux and Altamira, showcase remarkable artistic skill and symbolic thinking. These works may have served ritualistic, communicative, or educational purposes.
• Expansion across the globe - Humans migrated out of Africa and populated nearly all continents, adapting to diverse environments and developing unique cultural traditions.

10k-4k ya: The Neolithic Revolution

During this period, agriculture was developed and plants and animals were domesticated:

• Settled life - The shift from nomadic hunter-gathering to settled agriculture led to the establishment of permanent villages and later towns. This had profound social and cultural implications, including increased population density, specialization of labor, and the development of social hierarchies.
• Pottery and weaving - The invention of pottery allowed for food storage and cooking, while weaving provided clothing and other textiles.
• Emergence of early civilizations - In fertile river valleys like Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley, complex societies arose with organized governments, monumental architecture, writing systems, and advanced technologies.

4k ya - 500 CE: The Rise of Civilizations

During this period, numerous civilizations flourished across the globe, contributing various technical and cultural advances:

• 4000 BCE: Development of City States - Cities grew into centers of trade, culture, and political power, leading to the development of complex state structures and empires.
• 3000 BCE: Writing - Such as cuneiform in Mesopotamia and hieroglyphics in Egypt, enabled the recording of knowledge, history, and literature.
• Technological advancements - In metallurgy, mathematics, astronomy, and engineering, lead to innovations like the wheel, irrigation systems, and monumental architecture.
• Religions and philosophies - Including Buddhism, Confucianism, Judaism, and Christianity, emerge - shaping ethical values, social norms, and cultural identities.
  • 427-348 BCE - Plato
  • 384-322 BCE - Aristotle
  • c300 BCE - Euclid
  • 287-212 BCE Archimedes
• 476 - Fall of the Roman Empire

500 - 1500 CE: The Middle Ages

During this period, there were significant cultural and political transformations across the world. Christianity and Islam expanded rapidly, influencing vast regions and shaping cultural landscapes. Powerful empires emerged, such as the Byzantine Empire, the Islamic Caliphates, and the Mongol Empire, connecting diverse cultures and facilitating trade and exchange.

Despite political turmoil, significant advancements were made in art, literature, science, and philosophy, particularly in the Islamic world and China.

1300 - 1700 CE: The Renaissance and the Age of Exploration

This era marked a renewed interest in classical art, literature, and philosophy in Europe, leading to a period of intellectual and artistic flourishing:

• A focus on human potential and achievement led to significant advancements in art, science, and literature.
• European powers embarked on voyages of exploration, leading to increased global interconnectedness and the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures.
• New discoveries in astronomy, physics, and other sciences challenged traditional beliefs and laid the foundation for modern science.
• Key events:
  • 476 - Fall of the Roman Empire
  • 14th-16th C - Renaissance
  • 1450s - Gutenberg and moveable type
  • 1473-1543 - Copernicus and Heliocentrism
  • 1492 - Columbus' voyage to the Americas
  • 1517 - Luther and the Reformation
  • 1543 - Copernicus and the Scientific Revolution
  • 1618-1648 - Thirty Years War
  • 1687 - Newton's Principia Mathematica

1700 - 1900 CE: The Age of Revolutions and the Industrial Revolution

This period witnessed profound political, social, and economic transformations, driven by revolutionary ideas and technological advancements:

• Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and human rights fueled revolutions in America and France, challenging traditional forms of authority.
• The Industrial Revolution bought technological innovations, such as the steam engine and the power loom, led to mass production, urbanization, and significant social changes.
• The rise of nationalism and imperialism led to the formation of new nations, while European powers expanded their colonial empires across the globe.
• Key events:
  • 1765–1783 - The American Revolution
  • 1780s on - Industrial Revolution
  • 1789-1799 - The French Revolution
  • 1799-1815 - The Napoleonic Era

The 20th and 21st Centuries

This era has been marked by rapid technological advancements, globalization, and significant social and political changes:

• Two world wars and numerous other conflicts reshaped the global political landscape and led to the formation of international organizations like the United Nations.
• Rapid advancements in transportation, communication, and information technology have led to increased global interconnectedness and transformed human life.
• Globalization and and the flow of goods, ideas, and people across borders has led to increased cultural exchange and the emergence of a global culture.
• Social and political movementsfor civil rights, women's rights, and environmental protection have challenged social norms and led to significant social and political changes.